OMDE 606 Learning Journal: Reflective Comments
Purpose of My Learning Journal
The purpose of this learning journal is to reflect on the most important elements that I have learned from the OMDE 606 course. These reflective statements will consist of information from each module throughout the class. The information contained in each series of statements will be my evaluation and assessment of the course material. It is a collection of my thoughts, notes, and other relevant material that was accumulated over a period of time since the class began. These entries have improved my overall learning experience through the process of writing and thinking about what I have been taught in the OMDE 606 course. This learning journal will reflect not only what I have learned, but my attitude, personality, preferences, and personal experiences.
What Has Been Accomplished By This Learning Journal?
This learning journal will help provide my audience with a true picture of how my understanding has grown about the costs and economics of distance education and e-learning. It will also demonstrate how my learning has developed since the beginning of the OMDE 606 course. These records of my thoughts and ideas helped me to identify my strengths, areas for improvements and preferences in learning. Furthermore, this learning journal gave me an opportunity to communicate my thinking process as well. Reflective learning is a learned and active process. Therefore, recalling the most relevant aspects of this course has helped me to recognize what new things I have learned and see things in a whole new way.
Reflective Comments
Journal Entry #1: Module 1:
The Expansion of Education and the Emergence of the Economics of Education:
Is Education an Elixir or Snake Oil?
There is an open debate on whether education is an elixir or snake oil. I would say it is a little bit of both. Education can be seen as an investment with very real returns to the individual as well as to society as a whole. Individual demand rises and there seems little reason to discourage it. But trying to satisfy a mass demand for education, given the scarcity of resources, leads to the question of the most cost-effective provision of education. To a certain extent, educational access can be translated into tangible returns such as having a good paying job. This all depends upon on the cultural framework within which you operate. On the other hand, going to school may increase awareness as well as communication skills. Thus, skills can be turned into employment and monetary returns as well as self-perception, self-confidence, and communication skills. But, most of this operates within a cultural framework which impinges on the practical options. Education has a value beyond returns on investment. There are four pillars of education which include knowledge, competencies, learning to live together, and learning to be (Wolf, 2002).
Furthermore, education is about social recognition. You need perseverance and dedication to succeed. Society does benefit to a certain degree from education such as lower crime, citizenship, and economic returns. People who obtain a higher education do better economically. Too much of anything can be bad. This is the same with education. There is nothing wrong with obtaining a higher education, but people must understand that this does not mean one will become prosperous or get a better job. Education can lead to debt, which is often a challenge to payback overtime. Even if someone gets a good paying job, he or she may still have an accumulation of debt from going to school. With this in mind, I think people should have a balanced view of education. If going to school is something someone wants to do in order to improve their economic situation in life or for professional advancement, then one must understand the benefits and drawbacks from such a decision (Wolf, 2002).
References:
Wolf, A. (2002). Elixir or snake oil: Can education really deliver growth? In A. Wolf (Ed.), Does education matter? Myths about education and economic growth (pp. 13- 55). London: Penguin Books.
Furthermore, education is about social recognition. You need perseverance and dedication to succeed. Society does benefit to a certain degree from education such as lower crime, citizenship, and economic returns. People who obtain a higher education do better economically. Too much of anything can be bad. This is the same with education. There is nothing wrong with obtaining a higher education, but people must understand that this does not mean one will become prosperous or get a better job. Education can lead to debt, which is often a challenge to payback overtime. Even if someone gets a good paying job, he or she may still have an accumulation of debt from going to school. With this in mind, I think people should have a balanced view of education. If going to school is something someone wants to do in order to improve their economic situation in life or for professional advancement, then one must understand the benefits and drawbacks from such a decision (Wolf, 2002).
References:
Wolf, A. (2002). Elixir or snake oil: Can education really deliver growth? In A. Wolf (Ed.), Does education matter? Myths about education and economic growth (pp. 13- 55). London: Penguin Books.
Journal Entry #2: Module 1:
The Expansion of Education and the Emergence of the Economics of Education
Economics of Education: Human Capital Theory (HCT) and Screening Theory (ST)
The Human Capital Theory talks about how education is not a consumption good, but rather it is an investment in oneself such as obtaining a higher education, which leads to higher earnings in the future. It is also viewed as a specific production factor in society. On the other hand, the Screening Theory focuses on a selective function of education. It rates education as a measure to enable the selection between educated individuals according to their particular qualities. Employers select people according to other signals such as race, sex, age, and so forth. They do not select people based entirely off of their educational background, but there is a variety of things they screen applicants for. I feel that the Screening Theory is a better explanation of how people are selected for a job position. This is because employers pick or choose their applicants or candidates based off of more than just their education, but a variety of traits or attributes (Shultz, 1961).
Both of these theories use education as a factor, but these concepts lead to different outcomes. The Human Capital Theory sees education as an important input and aspect of production, and the Screening Theory views education as a less important factor in terms of raising productivity. Rather education, according to the Screening Theory, informs employers about the amount and quality of human capital and education serves as a signal of the labor market. In the Human Capital Theory, education is considered as a primary function of productivity and the labor market and in the Screening Theory, it views education as secondary. These market signals are activities or properties of people in the workforce. Therefore, these ideas and expectations can change for those individuals who are participating in the labor market (Shultz, 1961).
References:
Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. American Economic Review, 51, 1-17.
Both of these theories use education as a factor, but these concepts lead to different outcomes. The Human Capital Theory sees education as an important input and aspect of production, and the Screening Theory views education as a less important factor in terms of raising productivity. Rather education, according to the Screening Theory, informs employers about the amount and quality of human capital and education serves as a signal of the labor market. In the Human Capital Theory, education is considered as a primary function of productivity and the labor market and in the Screening Theory, it views education as secondary. These market signals are activities or properties of people in the workforce. Therefore, these ideas and expectations can change for those individuals who are participating in the labor market (Shultz, 1961).
References:
Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. American Economic Review, 51, 1-17.
Journal Entry #3: Module 1:
The Expansion of Education and the Emergence of the Economics of Education
Is Education a Positional Good?
A positional good is a function of its desirability by others. Education is a good that is desirable and its value depends on such ranking or its positionality in relation to others. It is not completely reliant upon its absolute value. Education provides immediate consumption benefits such as satisfaction and future benefits such as increased income. Education shows a significant impact on life satisfaction, which is independent of its effect on income, thus identifying a consumption component of education (Cunningham, Ryan, Stedman, Tapsall, Bagdon, Flew, & Coaldrake, 2000).
Furthermore, given that the contribution of education to satisfaction with life, may depend partly on relative position rather than absolute values. Education is no longer about developing the individual, but instead it is about investment in human capital and employability. The increased stratification of institutions of higher education is designed to be aligned with distinct employment trajectories. Many beneficiaries of higher education perceive it as a means of protecting their labor market position (Ryan et al., 2000).
The relation between the Human Capital Theory and the positional good argument is that this concept generally sees little problems in expanding education. The effect would be that rates of return would decrease until learners would see no point in studying, which in turn increases the scarcity of the educated. Therefore, this increases the scarcity of degree holders to the extent that their salaries would rise again. To the contrary, the Human Capital Theory ignores the problem of effective demand. The view that human capital can by itself solve job issues is somewhat foolishly promoted. The problems confronting this type of thinking is that many graduates may not find the appropriate jobs and this supply of graduates may result from the logic of an expanding education system, rather than the market demand (Ryan et al., 2000)
The other element in the positional good argument is that education conveys financial compensation and non-monetary returns in status. Status is a concept based on distinction. It is by definition based on exclusion. There are sophisticated ranking systems for universities nationally as well as internationally, which introduce additional distinctions. Traditionally, distance education was seen as second rate in this competition and often regarded as inferior. Nevertheless, the independent nature of distance education lets fewer students through the cracks. On the other hand, distance education systems have been seen to help maintain the stability of unfair societies by legitimizing what is only a pretense of equal opportunity. It is also seen as an inefficient, but a cheap way of containing educational demand without meeting it. Through its existence it helps protect the upper class from pressures that might otherwise threaten their status (Vaisey, 2006).
Education is a positional good or a status good because it acts as a status symbol relative to someone’s standing within society. Hence, investments in education are positional goods. This is compatible with the Human Capital Theory because this concept views education as an investment good because individuals invest in human capital or themselves, such as schooling. This investment in human capital makes a person more productive and this gain in productivity is reflected in higher wages. The return is higher income in the future and notoriety. The middle and upper class use education as a means to get to a higher social standing. When you increase your income, you also increase your status or ranking in society (Vaisey, 2006).
References:
Cunningham, S., Ryan, Y., Stedman, L., Tapsall, S., Bagdon, K., Flew, T., Coaldrake, P. (2000). The business of borderless education. Retrieved 12.12., 2001, from http://www.detya.gov.au/archive/highered/eippubs/
eip00_3/execsum.htm
Vaisey, S. (2006, December). Education and its Discontents: Overqualification in America, 1972-2002. Social Forces, 85(2), 835-864.
Furthermore, given that the contribution of education to satisfaction with life, may depend partly on relative position rather than absolute values. Education is no longer about developing the individual, but instead it is about investment in human capital and employability. The increased stratification of institutions of higher education is designed to be aligned with distinct employment trajectories. Many beneficiaries of higher education perceive it as a means of protecting their labor market position (Ryan et al., 2000).
The relation between the Human Capital Theory and the positional good argument is that this concept generally sees little problems in expanding education. The effect would be that rates of return would decrease until learners would see no point in studying, which in turn increases the scarcity of the educated. Therefore, this increases the scarcity of degree holders to the extent that their salaries would rise again. To the contrary, the Human Capital Theory ignores the problem of effective demand. The view that human capital can by itself solve job issues is somewhat foolishly promoted. The problems confronting this type of thinking is that many graduates may not find the appropriate jobs and this supply of graduates may result from the logic of an expanding education system, rather than the market demand (Ryan et al., 2000)
The other element in the positional good argument is that education conveys financial compensation and non-monetary returns in status. Status is a concept based on distinction. It is by definition based on exclusion. There are sophisticated ranking systems for universities nationally as well as internationally, which introduce additional distinctions. Traditionally, distance education was seen as second rate in this competition and often regarded as inferior. Nevertheless, the independent nature of distance education lets fewer students through the cracks. On the other hand, distance education systems have been seen to help maintain the stability of unfair societies by legitimizing what is only a pretense of equal opportunity. It is also seen as an inefficient, but a cheap way of containing educational demand without meeting it. Through its existence it helps protect the upper class from pressures that might otherwise threaten their status (Vaisey, 2006).
Education is a positional good or a status good because it acts as a status symbol relative to someone’s standing within society. Hence, investments in education are positional goods. This is compatible with the Human Capital Theory because this concept views education as an investment good because individuals invest in human capital or themselves, such as schooling. This investment in human capital makes a person more productive and this gain in productivity is reflected in higher wages. The return is higher income in the future and notoriety. The middle and upper class use education as a means to get to a higher social standing. When you increase your income, you also increase your status or ranking in society (Vaisey, 2006).
References:
Cunningham, S., Ryan, Y., Stedman, L., Tapsall, S., Bagdon, K., Flew, T., Coaldrake, P. (2000). The business of borderless education. Retrieved 12.12., 2001, from http://www.detya.gov.au/archive/highered/eippubs/
eip00_3/execsum.htm
Vaisey, S. (2006, December). Education and its Discontents: Overqualification in America, 1972-2002. Social Forces, 85(2), 835-864.
Journal Entry #4: Module 2:
Techniques of Cost Analysis
Modeling Costs
When anticipating costs of education, both the ingredients and modeling methodologies have to be created far in advance of the actual course. The ingredients approach might have far more unexpected costs based on not knowing the exact figures of student enrollment. Human resources, like faculty, may vary much more than if the ingredients approach is used. With the modeling technique, average figures or estimates could be used from previous semesters. The ingredients and modeling techniques are basic frameworks for analyzing revenue costs identified and the various costs associated with the economics of education in terms of units. A unit of cost must be able to quantify both the efficiency of expenditures on education and the benefits it provides, thus reflecting a measurable amount of product. Fixed costs are unchangeable, and variable and semi-variable costs are based on fluctuating activity levels of a unit measure of costs (Levin, 1983).
The ingredients method is part of the cost effectiveness analysis. The cost effectiveness analysis starts with analyzing the costs. The ingredient approach identifies the costs of what. Cost analysis needs first to identify the ingredients, specify the amount necessary, identify the unit cost per ingredient, and calculate the total costs from there. Then, it requires labeling the costs as capital or operating costs and treats them accordingly. Afterwards, one must give some sort of measurable assessment of the outcomes (Levin, 1983).
References:
Levin, H. M. (1983). Cost-effectiveness: A primer. London: Sage.
The ingredients method is part of the cost effectiveness analysis. The cost effectiveness analysis starts with analyzing the costs. The ingredient approach identifies the costs of what. Cost analysis needs first to identify the ingredients, specify the amount necessary, identify the unit cost per ingredient, and calculate the total costs from there. Then, it requires labeling the costs as capital or operating costs and treats them accordingly. Afterwards, one must give some sort of measurable assessment of the outcomes (Levin, 1983).
References:
Levin, H. M. (1983). Cost-effectiveness: A primer. London: Sage.
Journal Entry #5: Module 3:
The Cost Effectiveness of Distance Education Institutions
The Vulnerability Debate so Far: Is an Education an Elixir or Snake Oil?
The debate over promoting education is two-fold because it has its advantages and disadvantages. It is all about finding a balance between the two. No one will ever have access to education without incurring some kind of costs or debt. Nothing is totally free these days. Educational costs are being consumed or eaten up somewhere. There are always going to be opportunities that can be made, but there are also tradeoffs for these opportunities (Pritchett, 1999).
Internationalizing or globalizing education is not an easy feat, while trying to democratize and standardize it in the long-run. It is all about efficiency and effectiveness. Finding ways to promote distance learning programs efficiently and effectively will not be easy either, but it can be done. Higher education has its uncertainties and risks as well. Finding the optimal or right balance between these two forces can be accomplished by doing what’s right and then doing the right things to make this happen. Therefore, there must be a balance between efficiency and effectiveness (Pritchett, 1999).
References:
Pritchett, L. (1999, December). Where has all the education gone? Retrieved November, 5, 2003, from http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/1996/03/01/000009265
_3961019193624/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
Internationalizing or globalizing education is not an easy feat, while trying to democratize and standardize it in the long-run. It is all about efficiency and effectiveness. Finding ways to promote distance learning programs efficiently and effectively will not be easy either, but it can be done. Higher education has its uncertainties and risks as well. Finding the optimal or right balance between these two forces can be accomplished by doing what’s right and then doing the right things to make this happen. Therefore, there must be a balance between efficiency and effectiveness (Pritchett, 1999).
References:
Pritchett, L. (1999, December). Where has all the education gone? Retrieved November, 5, 2003, from http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/1996/03/01/000009265
_3961019193624/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
Journal Entry #6: Module 3:
The Cost Effectiveness of Distance Education Institutions
Social Justice and Distance Education
Higher education is more of a social phenomenon than a material-based one. It is characterized by an allotment of knowledge, socially-established beliefs, and the expectations of universities, individuals, and states. The meaning and ramifications of higher education depends on the system's social structure. This social structure promotes a productive sociality. There has been a rise in the commercialization and commoditization of higher education. Hence, it is paramount that we safeguard the developmental character of higher education in distance learning organizations (Rumble, 2007).
Distance learning universities have a broad range of geographies in both developing and developed economies, which are deeply entrenched in the developmental discourse and the politics of social change. The array of approaches developed by distance learning organizations has certainly deployed distance education as being at their core. They are concerned with the affordances that are delivered through the separation of time and space, and through the use of technologies to innovate their pedagogies. These affordances deliver flexibility to full-time working adults, people with families and personal obligations, those who are disabled and individuals who are restricted by location (Rumble, 2007).
These institutions can offer programs at lower costs as compared to traditional educational systems. Through economies of scale, these distance learning institutions can provide opportunities for far more people than would otherwise be possible. More generally, through scale and flexibility, it can in terms of social policy provide a pressure valve to release frustrations about educational opportunity; deliver large scale opportunities for professional development that support improvement in quality of service and economic growth; support the development of educated people; and to nourish internationalization, globalization, self-fulfillment, democratization, and standardization (Rumble, 2007).
References:
Rumble, G. (2007). Social justice, economics and distance education. Open Learning, 22(2), 167-176.
Distance learning universities have a broad range of geographies in both developing and developed economies, which are deeply entrenched in the developmental discourse and the politics of social change. The array of approaches developed by distance learning organizations has certainly deployed distance education as being at their core. They are concerned with the affordances that are delivered through the separation of time and space, and through the use of technologies to innovate their pedagogies. These affordances deliver flexibility to full-time working adults, people with families and personal obligations, those who are disabled and individuals who are restricted by location (Rumble, 2007).
These institutions can offer programs at lower costs as compared to traditional educational systems. Through economies of scale, these distance learning institutions can provide opportunities for far more people than would otherwise be possible. More generally, through scale and flexibility, it can in terms of social policy provide a pressure valve to release frustrations about educational opportunity; deliver large scale opportunities for professional development that support improvement in quality of service and economic growth; support the development of educated people; and to nourish internationalization, globalization, self-fulfillment, democratization, and standardization (Rumble, 2007).
References:
Rumble, G. (2007). Social justice, economics and distance education. Open Learning, 22(2), 167-176.
Journal Entry #7: Module 3:
The Cost Effectiveness of Distance Education Institutions
Vulnerability Debate Revisited: Is Online Learning a Disruptive Technology or Is It Adaptable to All Sorts of Institutional Arrangements?
Online learning is not completely a disruptive technology and it has transformed higher education. E-learning has its threats and it is constructive at the same time. Education has experienced pressures from everywhere to stimulate an urgent need for change. The classification of distance education according to generations of technologies is misleading. Since new technologies are not necessarily or fully displaced by previous generations, rather the frontier of educational technology is shifting or this indicates a shift in the technology frontier (Christensen, Horn, & Soares, 2012).
Distance learning universities are in a vulnerable position because many of them were set up in a non-competitive environment. These shifts in social and demographics have augmented the part-time student markets and conventional universities may adopt these distance learning approaches and exploit these opportunities as well. Traditional educational institutions can exploit these advantages and opportunities by becoming dual mode universities; where they adopt teaching both on-campus and off-campus courses. These dual mode universities can exploit the advantages of marginal costs by keeping their costs lower and developing cheaper courses in comparison to distance learning institutions (Rumble, 2004).
Online education has caused some disruption in traditional and correspondence education because it became an alternative or a replacement for these forms of learning. It has changed the way we do things in education, but it has not necessarily created a new market because distance education has been around for a while now. The internet just improved the way distance education is communicated and delivered. It is not a new phenomenon.
References:
Christensen, C., Horn, M. B., and Soares, L.C.L. (2012). Disrupting college how disruptive innovation can deliver quality and affordability to postsecondary education. Washington, District of Columbia: The New America Foundation.
Rumble, G. (2004). The competitive vulnerability of distance teaching Universities (1992). In G. Rumble (Ed.), Papers and debates on the costs and economics of distance education and online learning (Vol. 7, pp. 67-88). Oldenburg: BIS.
Distance learning universities are in a vulnerable position because many of them were set up in a non-competitive environment. These shifts in social and demographics have augmented the part-time student markets and conventional universities may adopt these distance learning approaches and exploit these opportunities as well. Traditional educational institutions can exploit these advantages and opportunities by becoming dual mode universities; where they adopt teaching both on-campus and off-campus courses. These dual mode universities can exploit the advantages of marginal costs by keeping their costs lower and developing cheaper courses in comparison to distance learning institutions (Rumble, 2004).
Online education has caused some disruption in traditional and correspondence education because it became an alternative or a replacement for these forms of learning. It has changed the way we do things in education, but it has not necessarily created a new market because distance education has been around for a while now. The internet just improved the way distance education is communicated and delivered. It is not a new phenomenon.
References:
Christensen, C., Horn, M. B., and Soares, L.C.L. (2012). Disrupting college how disruptive innovation can deliver quality and affordability to postsecondary education. Washington, District of Columbia: The New America Foundation.
Rumble, G. (2004). The competitive vulnerability of distance teaching Universities (1992). In G. Rumble (Ed.), Papers and debates on the costs and economics of distance education and online learning (Vol. 7, pp. 67-88). Oldenburg: BIS.
Journal Entry #8: Module 4:
Costing Educational Technologies
Technology Costs and Return on Investment
People think that technology is the major driver of decreasing costs. Efficiency is driven by two processes; capital for labor substitution and this often comes with new productivity and it improves technologies; the second one is labor for labor substitution and this is seen as a driver in the process of globalization. For example, expensive American labor is substituted by cheap Asian labor. Therefore, this drives costs down massively. The technologies helping to do this are not direct production technologies, but it is the overall improvement in transport and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). ICT allows people to monitor and integrate production on an international scale (Rumble, 1997).
The interesting point about educational technology is that to a certain extent, it is a technology which does not increase efficiency, rather it decreases efficiency. Since responsive interaction at a distance allows more student teacher interaction, it tends to erode the little economies of scale, which could be harvested in teaching. Responsive interaction at a distance tends to change the cost structure by increasing variable cost per student (Rumble, 1997).
References:
Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: KoganPage.
The interesting point about educational technology is that to a certain extent, it is a technology which does not increase efficiency, rather it decreases efficiency. Since responsive interaction at a distance allows more student teacher interaction, it tends to erode the little economies of scale, which could be harvested in teaching. Responsive interaction at a distance tends to change the cost structure by increasing variable cost per student (Rumble, 1997).
References:
Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: KoganPage.
Journal Entry #9: Module 5:
The Cost and Costing of E-Learning
Business Models of Collaboration
A dedicated distance learning university may select to collaborate with traditional colleges to serve as a learning center for their students. These preparations or measures may be more cost efficient than finding new places to house their students. For example, UMUC uses the University of Maryland at College Park as a learning center for their students. UMUC gains by not having to build new student centers for the learners, which is an expense. Therefore, setting up classes at the College Park location helps them to gain because they do not have to develop new places for their students to take their courses. Hence, they are able to focus more on providing support to their students. Furthermore, UMUC invented itself as an online institution who wanted a flagship program. They wanted to be the biggest American distance education institution and to demonstrate that it cannot only practice, but is also able to reflect on what its doing. The reasons for this cooperation may be due the good chemistry between key players from the two institutions, time to market, and visibility (Rumble, 1997).
References:
Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: KoganPage.
References:
Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: KoganPage.
Journal Entry#10: Module 6:
Cost and Economics of Student Support
Dropout Rates and Cost Effectiveness
Dropout rates can be a good indication to measure the risk of students to graduate, but there is no single variable to measure student success. Dropout rates should not be used as the only means for measuring risks. There are several factors that should be included when measuring student’s success rates such as student supports, self-efficiency, independence, study time, learning outcomes, environmental conditions, and time management. Variables across universities differ in online courses, which makes it difficult to measure since institutions offer web-based classes in various forms, platforms, design courses differently, and provide different levels of student support. A student’s decision whether to dropout in a distance learning course is influenced by environmental factors such as family support, organizational support, and technical support. Also, course design can be another factor that contributes to a student’s persistence. Therefore, the unique factors mentioned contribute to dropout rates and one should not primarily measure the graduate rates based only on the number of students that dropout (Rumble, 1997).
Furthermore, using dropout rates as the only measurement of the risk of students to graduate can become problematic, especially with comparing distance education programs and conventional educational systems. The quality of students entering the system may be lower. Therefore, a true measure of output should estimate not just the final standard achieved but the value-added, which is the difference between the initial and final standard. One must assume that the judgments about standards and objectives are equivalent. Most distance educators will make the point that in interpreting course completion and success on examinations as an indication of success, and drop out and failure on an examination as an indication of failure. This is an institutional or teacher-oriented judgment about what constitutes success. This may not be how the students see it. There is a combination of student factors and learning conditions that can predict success of students in virtual environments. Therefore, predicting success will probably be much easier than predicting failure (Rumble, 1997).
Nevertheless, dropout rates may be considered as a risk that is attached to the student's investment in education because when someone goes to school and attends a distance education program; he or she may not be conscious of their ultimate goals through self-actualization and have not made their study intentions known or whether non-completion of the program means interruption or drop out in the sense of failure (Rumble, 1997).
Dropout rates may cause collateral damage in reference to grade creep. Distance educators and institutions may become vulnerable to grade creep because they may feel the pressure to drive up high or above average grades in order to increase graduation rates in their programs. Inflating grades may be seen as a way to ensure the success of these distance learning programs, if graduation rates are low and dropout rates are high (Rumble, 1997).
Dropout rates should be made public because it gives an indication of a distance education program's quality, efficacy, and effectiveness. But, it should not be the ultimate factor in determining or measuring the risk of students to graduate, determining whether a student will be successful or the likelihood to continue on in a course. One must consider other determinants and factors that will play a role in graduation rates and retention. All of these things must be considered, if a university is going to measure the risk of students to graduate (Rumble, 1997).
References:
Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: KoganPage.
Furthermore, using dropout rates as the only measurement of the risk of students to graduate can become problematic, especially with comparing distance education programs and conventional educational systems. The quality of students entering the system may be lower. Therefore, a true measure of output should estimate not just the final standard achieved but the value-added, which is the difference between the initial and final standard. One must assume that the judgments about standards and objectives are equivalent. Most distance educators will make the point that in interpreting course completion and success on examinations as an indication of success, and drop out and failure on an examination as an indication of failure. This is an institutional or teacher-oriented judgment about what constitutes success. This may not be how the students see it. There is a combination of student factors and learning conditions that can predict success of students in virtual environments. Therefore, predicting success will probably be much easier than predicting failure (Rumble, 1997).
Nevertheless, dropout rates may be considered as a risk that is attached to the student's investment in education because when someone goes to school and attends a distance education program; he or she may not be conscious of their ultimate goals through self-actualization and have not made their study intentions known or whether non-completion of the program means interruption or drop out in the sense of failure (Rumble, 1997).
Dropout rates may cause collateral damage in reference to grade creep. Distance educators and institutions may become vulnerable to grade creep because they may feel the pressure to drive up high or above average grades in order to increase graduation rates in their programs. Inflating grades may be seen as a way to ensure the success of these distance learning programs, if graduation rates are low and dropout rates are high (Rumble, 1997).
Dropout rates should be made public because it gives an indication of a distance education program's quality, efficacy, and effectiveness. But, it should not be the ultimate factor in determining or measuring the risk of students to graduate, determining whether a student will be successful or the likelihood to continue on in a course. One must consider other determinants and factors that will play a role in graduation rates and retention. All of these things must be considered, if a university is going to measure the risk of students to graduate (Rumble, 1997).
References:
Rumble, G. (1997). The costs and economics of open and distance learning. London: KoganPage.
Journal Entry #11: Module 6:
Cost and Economics of Student Support
The Wide Context: Using Education as a Sorting Mechanism
Educational credentials as sorting devices will lose their attractiveness to employers if higher education is expanded beyond 50 percent. Employers may use this type of mechanism less because they have to choose from more qualified individuals. It would drive them to screen less people due to them becoming more lax. They may think that since there has been a proliferation in education, they do not have to screen as many applicants due to more candidates having the educational credentials they are looking for. There are ethical issues associated with using this option as a tool for predicting peoples' success (Simpson, 2006). The problems that exist are the following:
References:
Simpson, O. (2006, June). Predicting student support in open and dist6ance learning. Open Learning, 21(2), 125-138.
- Data has limited accuracy;
- There are arbitrary limits;
- Targeting favors specific groups of people; and
- There are moral issues with holding such data (Simpson, 2006).
References:
Simpson, O. (2006, June). Predicting student support in open and dist6ance learning. Open Learning, 21(2), 125-138.
Journal Entry #12: Module 7:
Web 2.0 Technologies
Participatory Surveillance
Participatory surveillance has its pros and cons, so it is a double-edged sword. The primary reason for having this surveillance program is in place is only for one reason; to prevent another major terror attack like the one experienced on 9/11. But, it welcomes the debate about the balance between security and privacy rights. Under international law, the government has an obligation to show surveillance that infringes the right to privacy is necessary, legitimate, and proportionate. It is hard to imagine what might justify the sweeping scope of the programs recently revealed. These revelations demand careful analysis by Congress and the courts to determine whether the government is in fact acting in accordance with its obligations under domestic and international law (Albrechtslund, 2008).
No doubt, a huge part of the con case will center on the principle of rights and liberties and the erosion of personal freedoms. At stake is a debate on national security interests versus personal liberty. It is the dilemma of social contract, which begins to require more and more that citizens relinquish freedoms in exchange for protection. The evidence arising from that act revealed that the terrorists are living among us and when suspected terrorists enter the country, it is very difficult to track their activities and whereabouts in a coordinated way (Albrechtslund, 2008).
In the beginning, the National Security Agency (NSA) mandate was to isolate activities which involved individuals within the nation’s borders and interacting with suspected terrorists outside of the country. Often, intelligence gathered outside of the country, such as a captured terrorist's cell phone revealed phone numbers of people inside the United States. When this occurred, investigators could obtain probable cause warrants and have phone data collected for the phone inside the country and the investigation would proceed accordingly, to identification, and location of the individual involved. Nevertheless, soon after the NSA was created, it began collecting meta data on the calls of nearly all U.S. citizens without warrants. It is claimed the data contains basic information which does not identify the individuals and indeed, the phone companies themselves have this data as a means to verify billing records (Albrechtslund, 2008).
Therefore, I am unsure if participatory surveillance is being done for the right reasons or with probable cause. But, it was put in place for the right reasons. On the other hand, the government can abuse such a system. The government is comprised of bureaucrats, contractors, administrators, and millions of people and to think they all act with utmost regard for individual’s rights and moral integrity may be seen as foolish thinking. We are constantly seeing failures of the system to safeguard liberties and with so many points of failure, it is inevitable (Albrechtslund, 2008).
References:
Albrechtslund, A. (2008, March). Online social networking as participatory surveilance. First Monday, 13(3).
No doubt, a huge part of the con case will center on the principle of rights and liberties and the erosion of personal freedoms. At stake is a debate on national security interests versus personal liberty. It is the dilemma of social contract, which begins to require more and more that citizens relinquish freedoms in exchange for protection. The evidence arising from that act revealed that the terrorists are living among us and when suspected terrorists enter the country, it is very difficult to track their activities and whereabouts in a coordinated way (Albrechtslund, 2008).
In the beginning, the National Security Agency (NSA) mandate was to isolate activities which involved individuals within the nation’s borders and interacting with suspected terrorists outside of the country. Often, intelligence gathered outside of the country, such as a captured terrorist's cell phone revealed phone numbers of people inside the United States. When this occurred, investigators could obtain probable cause warrants and have phone data collected for the phone inside the country and the investigation would proceed accordingly, to identification, and location of the individual involved. Nevertheless, soon after the NSA was created, it began collecting meta data on the calls of nearly all U.S. citizens without warrants. It is claimed the data contains basic information which does not identify the individuals and indeed, the phone companies themselves have this data as a means to verify billing records (Albrechtslund, 2008).
Therefore, I am unsure if participatory surveillance is being done for the right reasons or with probable cause. But, it was put in place for the right reasons. On the other hand, the government can abuse such a system. The government is comprised of bureaucrats, contractors, administrators, and millions of people and to think they all act with utmost regard for individual’s rights and moral integrity may be seen as foolish thinking. We are constantly seeing failures of the system to safeguard liberties and with so many points of failure, it is inevitable (Albrechtslund, 2008).
References:
Albrechtslund, A. (2008, March). Online social networking as participatory surveilance. First Monday, 13(3).
Journal Entry #13: Module 7
Web 2.0 Technologies
Can We Replicate This Business Model in Education?
MOOCs may be able to be seen as an application of a web 2.0 business model because they have the potential to create global communities of learning. They can fully exploit Web 2.0 revenue sources such as crowdsourcing and crowdfunding. These platforms include a social element, with tools such as peer grading to reduce costs. Crowdsourcing can enable institutions to provide market research services to publishers, retailers or anyone willing to pay for them through platforms. Crowdfunding could be a new revenue stream. MOOC platforms are virtual academic hubs where millions of people with similar interests meet and these can be engaged as small donors and study participants. Private companies may also make use of these platforms if they see that crowdfunded research can be viable as a Research and Development strategy (Goodfellow, 2007).
Higher education has always been an array of autonomous institutions, each with their own courses, their own faculty, and their own requirements for their own degrees. But online education is starting to break down those lines, in ways that are likely to lead to a lot more shared courses, consortia, and credit transfers. In addition, there are a growing number of companies providing higher education courses outside the traditional higher education institutions. MOOCs might be seen as a form of industrially scaled automation of the teaching function that uses internet platforms to deliver content globally. MOOCs are based on the traditional one-to-many broadcast principle rather than the many-to-many, horizontal peer-learning structures (Goodfellow, 2007).
MOOCs are speculative financial instruments. The purpose of an educational institution is to educate, but the purpose of a start-up is to convert itself into a financial instrument. The two major MOOC providers, Udacity and Coursera, are venture-capital-funded start-ups, and therefore they are held to high-leverage. MOOCs may be able to advance the values of web 2.0 technologies such as user-generated cultures. These new principles of radical openness have become the basis of innovative institutional forms that decentralize and democratize power relationships, and promote access to knowledge and encourage symmetrical, horizontal peer learning relationships. Therefore, MOOCs may be able to replicate a web 2.0 business model in education (Goodfellow, 2007).
References:
Goodfellow, R. (2007January 9 -10). The impact of emerging Web 2.0 internet practices on future developments in teaching and learning. Paper presented at the Learning Futures conference, Leicester University.
Higher education has always been an array of autonomous institutions, each with their own courses, their own faculty, and their own requirements for their own degrees. But online education is starting to break down those lines, in ways that are likely to lead to a lot more shared courses, consortia, and credit transfers. In addition, there are a growing number of companies providing higher education courses outside the traditional higher education institutions. MOOCs might be seen as a form of industrially scaled automation of the teaching function that uses internet platforms to deliver content globally. MOOCs are based on the traditional one-to-many broadcast principle rather than the many-to-many, horizontal peer-learning structures (Goodfellow, 2007).
MOOCs are speculative financial instruments. The purpose of an educational institution is to educate, but the purpose of a start-up is to convert itself into a financial instrument. The two major MOOC providers, Udacity and Coursera, are venture-capital-funded start-ups, and therefore they are held to high-leverage. MOOCs may be able to advance the values of web 2.0 technologies such as user-generated cultures. These new principles of radical openness have become the basis of innovative institutional forms that decentralize and democratize power relationships, and promote access to knowledge and encourage symmetrical, horizontal peer learning relationships. Therefore, MOOCs may be able to replicate a web 2.0 business model in education (Goodfellow, 2007).
References:
Goodfellow, R. (2007January 9 -10). The impact of emerging Web 2.0 internet practices on future developments in teaching and learning. Paper presented at the Learning Futures conference, Leicester University.
Overall Learning Outcomes
I have learned a vast amount of information since the beginning of the OMDE 606 course. The knowledge that I acquired dealt with the economics of distance education in the larger context of the economics of education. This class used a variety of methodological approaches such as cost and benefit analysis and cost and effectiveness techniques, which were applied in a distance education context. Furthermore, several costing models and economic concepts were explored and applied to different institutional forms and levels of distance education and e-learning.
The course goals gave me the ability to become competent and knowledgeable in the process of setting up and managing the economic aspects of distance learning, both at the institutional and course level. I have achieved the following objectives:
The course goals gave me the ability to become competent and knowledgeable in the process of setting up and managing the economic aspects of distance learning, both at the institutional and course level. I have achieved the following objectives:
- Understand the expansion of education and the raising costs of educational arrangements;
- Comprehend the theoretical framework of the Human Capital Theory, which is the main concept of the economics of education;
- Determine the cost drivers in distance learning systems and the ability to measure them;
- Calculate capital costs and annualization costs;
- Grasp the basic cost model and access the economies of scale;
- Evaluate and compare cost structure of media and grasp the cost model for quick cost estimates of selected media configurations;
- Make application of the costing methodology to online learning and determine specific cost drivers of e-learning;
- Examine the cost of online student support services;
- Explain the challenges of online learning on the cost structure of distance education;
- Analyze the economics of learner support; and
- Investigate the implications of web 2.0 in relation to efficiency.