Artifacts, Work Samples, & Sample Assignments
What is an artifact?
An artifact is anything that I have developed with in and outside of the Masters in Distance Education Program that demonstrates my professional expertise. Futhermore, this section of my e-portfolio demonstrates my active participation in the Master's program and it demonstrates the skills and proficiencies that I have developed so far.
Sample Assignment 1
Kelley Wells
OMDE 601 Section 9040
September 30, 2012
The Definition of Distance Education
Introduction
The term distance education can be referred to as distributed learning, correspondence study, independent study, online learning, and adult education. All of these terms can be used interchangeably to describe what distance education is. Even though, many traditional terms and definitions exist for distance education, a good piece of terminology is needed in order to gain an adequate understanding of this concept (Holmberg, 2005). This paper hopes to identify and discuss a single definition that accurately describes what distance education is and provide an explanation for the selection of this rationale.
How is Distance Education Defined?
According to Schlosser & Simonson (2010), distance education is defined as an “institution-based formal education where the learning group is separated, and where interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners, resources, and instructors.” This definition was chosen because it accurately delineates what distance education is and its defining attributes. This delineation has four components that make up the meaning of distance education. The subsequent paragraphs will break down these four components and expound upon this rationale.
The Defining Characteristics of Distance Education
There are four constituent elements that define distance education. The first element of this terminology deals with distance education being established by an institution. Distance learning is an industrial mode of education because corporations, businesses, companies, colleges, and universities offer nontraditional courses to people at a distance. This form of education has become industrialized, and it has helped people all over the world gain greater access to a quality education (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). For example, according to Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010), British Open Universities in the 1970s started to adjust and coordinate their educational and institutional structures to embrace the “massification” of teaching and learning. Furthermore, this industrial mode of education was aimed at concentrating on the “organizational economies of scale.” The objective of this pedagogy was to help those impoverished individuals gain greater access to a good education (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
Next, the second constituent involves having a division amid the student and instructor. The student and instructor are not physically in the same location at the same time (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). For example, Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010) pointed out that the division between the pupil and teacher occurred because they were geographically separated or the student had personal obligations that stopped him or her from attending class. These obligations include things such as work, family, and transportation issues. From an educational perspective, distance education is supposed to close the gap amid the pupil and teacher by providing a means of communication (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
The third component is concerned with using a two-way system of communications to transmit or disseminate information from one person to another at a distance. This media can be technical or nontechnical in nature. This can include radio, telephone, television, computer, or printed or written material (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). For instance, Garrison & Cleveland-Innes noted that, in the 1970s and 1980s, technology such as radio and television was supposed to be an inexpensive way to disseminate and transmit educational material. Rather, it proved to be too costly, and educational institutions continued to use written material as a means for delivering their course instruction (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
Finally, the forth component is the notion of linking the students, teacher, and instructional material together. This means the teacher communicates with the students and the educational materials are readily prepared, which gives students the ability to access it at their convenience. In turn, the student will have the capability to acquire knowledge from the teacher’s instruction. These educational resources are constructed in such a way that it facilitates learning that can be grasped, apprehended, and perceived by the student (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010) asserted that technology such as the Internet has helped to connect the educators with the learners. The internet has helped educators to facilitate educational material more easily, made access to education more convenient, learners have greater access to resources, and it has increased the students’ learning experience (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
Conclusion
The term distance education has various meanings, and it comes in many different forms. There is no one way to describe the meaning of this word. Education no longer has to take place in a classroom setting; it can be done from any place and at any time. The four elements of distance education include being established by an institution; having a division amid the student and instructor; using a two-way system of communications to transmit or disseminate information from one person to another at a distance; and linking the students, teacher, and instructional material together. Many traditional definitions that give a description of distance education often lack one of these four qualities. If one of these determinants is omitted, then the definition of distance education may not accurately suit this term today. Therefore, a strong rationale is needed to dispute these traditional views of distance education.
References
Garrison, D. R. & Cleveland-Innes, M. F. (2010). An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era. New York, NY: Routledge.
Holmberg, B. (2005). Concepts and terminology - Student bodies. The evolution, principles, and practice of distance education, 11, 9-11. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Retrieved from http://www.box.com/shared/y97qyc7m0t.
Schlosser, L. A., & Simonson M. (2010). Distance education: Definition and glossary of terms (3rd ed.). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Sample Assignment 2
Kelley Wells
OMDE 601 Section 9040
October 28, 2012
Comparing and Contrasting Distance Education Institutions in Developed and Underdeveloped Countries
Introduction
Several types of distance education organizations have come into existence. These establishments have surfaced in industrialized and underdeveloped countries. Each of these organizations can vary based on various dimensions. These different dimensions include mission and population served, inherent values, history and reason for existence, technology used, systems of operations, and model of teaching and learning. Many of these educational institutions are frequently used as models in various contexts in distance learning. This paper will thoughtfully compare and contrast the British Open University and the African Virtual University based upon these various dimensions, in an effort to address how the context of each institution influences their particular distance education practice.
History and Reason for Existence
The first dimension that will be discussed is the history and reason for existence. The African Virtual University opened up in 1997 as a World Bank project, which is headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya. This is not a conventional educational institution, rather it is a consortium. The consortium structure is an institutional cooperative that provides all its affiliates with a pool of information and educational resources to help create a new organizational arrangement. This type of institutional arrangement assures that all the affiliated organizations’ needs, goals, and interests are being met (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). The African Virtual University has partnered with educational organizations in Africa and other countries, to provide distance education courses to students in an electronic and open learning format. This organization wants to augment access to their curriculum by making various forms of teaching and learning available to everyone. Therefore, the African Virtual University capitalized on higher education by focusing on the international market (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
The British Open University was constituted in 1969, and it is the largest educational organization in the United Kingdom. The purpose of this institution was to give the people in the United Kingdom a second chance at obtaining a secondary education by taking distance learning courses. This establishment has an open arrangement, which means that there are no affiliated schools or colleges under its control. In addition, the British Open University does not require their students to have any formal academic qualifications, in order for them to register with this distance education organization (Richardson, 2010).
Mission and Population Served
The second element that will be compared is mission and population served. The mission of the African Virtual University is to collaborate with educational organizations in Africa and other countries for the advancement of knowledge and quality instruction, to perpetually change the way teaching and learning is disseminated in the future, and to make education inexpensive, economical, fair, reasonable, and pliable by making use of communication technologies and systematic educational structures (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). Moreover, the African Virtual University’s vision is to be the head African university that supports a distance learning environment that is inclusive and unclosed in a consortium partnership (Juma, 2003).
The British Open University’s mission is to have an open door policy when it comes to various techniques, concepts, people, and locations. Hence, this organization is opening their doors to everyone despite their educational situation or geographical location. Furthermore, the Open University of the United Kingdom’s vision is not only to offer people a second chance at obtaining a quality education, but to foster social equitableness by offering a high quality education to all those who want to succeed and reach their full potential (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
Nevertheless, these institutions serve different populations in their countries. The African Virtual University benefits the people in Sub-Saharan Africa who are educationally and economically disadvantaged. This organization wants to use new information technologies to help augment the access to education throughout this region (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). The British Open University serves students in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world. The students are composed of those who are disabled, who work full-time and have families, study part-time, and people who are 21 years of age and older. It is considered an educational organization for the working or middle class. Their open admission policy welcomes people from all ages, ethnicities, races, and backgrounds (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
Inherent Values
The third constituent that will be evaluated is inherent values. The African Virtual University’s values are to promote accessibility to tertiary education in Africa through a joint effort with other partner organizations; and to foster candidness, dependableness, and courteousness with their faculty (Juma, 2003). The British Open University’s inherent values are to be open to all, creative with their teaching and methods of learning, encourage lifelong learning, and to be receptive to the needs of the students, societies, and organizations (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
System of Operations
The fourth dimension that will be analyzed is system of operations. The African Virtual University is composed of several organizational levels. The first level is the faculty and departments, which are located in the Australian organizations; the second level is positioned at the universities in Africa; the third level is at the African Virtual University’s learning centers; and the fourth level is at native universities in Africa with the faculty and educators. Their system of operations uses a network of universities and institutions from different countries to disseminate educational materials to distant learners in Africa (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
The Open University of the United Kingdom has an intricate infrastructure. It is split up into thirteen centers. Each of these centers has a local administrator, who is in charge of setting up the regional study centers. These study centers offer the learners a place where they can interact with one another. In addition, these places allow the students to talk with their counselors and tutors face-to-face. Each center is managed by a counselor who counsels and direct group lectures after instructional broadcasts (Brennan, Holloway, & Shah, n.d.). The facilities at the University’s central base are all controlled from one administrative center. It is located in Milton Keynes, London. This institution also has centers located in Ireland and Europe (Brennan, Holloway, & Shah, n.d.).
Model of Teaching and Learning
The fifth component that will be examined is the institutions’ models of teaching and learning. The African Virtual University uses a mixed-mode approach, which is a combination of blended and online learning. This technique uses emails and chat sessions in an e-learning environment, which takes place in real time. This aids in providing their distant learners with a new approach to learning (Juma, 2003). Furthermore, they use a learning center approach. The students must sign up at one of the institution’s learning centers, where they will attend synchronous meetings. This ensures that the learners are exposed to the organization’s technologies and they obtain an effectual learning experience (Juma, 2003).
The Open University of the United Kingdom’s models of teaching and learning are the transmission and open learning models. The transmission model deals with finding ways to effectually exchange information or knowledge. Since we are in a knowledge-based society, more weight needs to be given to meeting the needs and demands of widening the access to obtaining a higher education. The transmission model uses technologies such as the computer and internet, to disseminate information to their students in order to make a more progressive teaching model (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). The open learning model gives the students the ability to access a distance learning environment through computerized technologies such as the internet. This offers the educators and distant learners’ flexibility and convenience in an inclusive environment. This model employs different technologies to empower learning and the building of intellectual capital (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
Technology Used
The final dimension to be considered is the types of technology used. The African Virtual University uses a form of technical media called Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). An example of this form of media is asynchronous videoconferencing. Further, they use open source software and courseware to help lessen the duplication of instructional material (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). This organization uses other forms of technology as well. The university relies on satellites to transmit information from one location to another. These technologies allow the educators and lecturers from partner institutions the ability to teach their course material to the students at the African Virtual University (Juma, 2003).
However, the British Open University uses computer-based technologies to disseminate their instruction material to people in the United Kingdom. Examples of these technologies include websites, online conferencing, digital resources, and CD-ROMs. They also rely on written, audio, and television broadcasts as well (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
How Distance Learning is Influenced by the Institutional Context of These Organizations
The institutional contexts of the African Virtual University and British Open University have influenced their distance education practices in Africa and Great Britain. The Open University of the United Kingdom is located in a developed country, and it has brought about a new form of teaching and learning as compared to conventional schools and universities. This institution has made a substantial contribution to the development of distance education in the United Kingdom. It emancipated distance education by incorporating technology into their educational regime. The British Open University helped to industrialize distance learning by mass producing and distributing education in Great Britain. This allowed teaching and learning to be disseminated to a large group of people in this region. Therefore, this made obtaining a quality education inexpensive, convenient, and affordable. In essence, this permitted everyone to have equal and quality access to obtaining a secondary education (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
To the contrary, the African Virtual University is located in a developing country. This institution has made huge strides in distance education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, this region is the most undeveloped place in the world when it comes to education. This region faces many obstacles, which ranges from inadequate access to having inferiority in education. Sub-Saharan Africa is not equipped with an adequate educational infrastructure, deficient in trained instructors, and scarce in educational resources (Cyranek, 2000). The African Virtual University has augmented the access to obtaining a tertiary education, and it has aided in advancing higher education initiatives in Africa (Juma, 2003). This was accomplished by facilitating knowledge across Africa, and by closing the digital divide between Africa and the rest of the world through the use of technology. By making use of the partnership institutions, blended and open learning programs, and embracing student-centered learning; this has helped this institution to facilitate the globalization and dissemination of information in a knowledge-based society (Juma, 2003).
Conclusion
The Open University of the United Kingdom and the African Virtual University are two distinct types of educational institutions that exist in two different countries. They vary based on mission and population served, inherent values, history and reason for existence, technology used, systems of operations, and model of teaching and learning. These organizations learned how to reduce costs, augment quality, and widen the access to obtaining a higher education. Moreover, these institutions focused on using the latest technology and pedagogical principles to drive the industrialization and globalization of distance education. Technology helped to mass produce and disseminate information to people in Africa and the United Kingdom. The distance education practices of these specialized institutions are helping their countries to meet the huge demand for higher education.
References
Brennan, J., Holloway, J., & Shah, T. (n.d.). Open university the United Kingdom (Quality Assessment). Retrieved from Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) website: http://www.oecd.org/education/
higher educationandadultlearning/1871706.pdf.
Cyranek, G. (2000). Virtual Learning in the African Context. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=6387&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL
_SECTION=201.html.
Dzvimbo, K. P., & Kariuki, C.W. (n.d.). Quality assurance in the African Virtual University: A case study. Commonwealth of Learning (COL). Retrieved from http://www.col.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/PS-QA_chapter4.pdf.
Juma, M. (2003). The Virtual University: Models and messages (Kenyatta University- African Virtual University: An evolution of an exiting institution). Retrieved from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization- International Institute for Educational Planning website: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001465/146558e.pdf.
Richardson, J.T. (2010). Course completion and attainment in disabled students taking courses with the Open University UK. Open Learning, 25(2), 81-94. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
02680511003787263.
Sample 3 Assignment
Kelley Wells
OMDE 601 Section 9040
November 30, 2012
Andragogy: How This Early Distance Education Theory Influenced Current Distance
Education Practices
Introduction
Many earlier distance learning theories have made huge impacts on distance education, and the one that has been very influential in the way adults learn is andragogy. Andragogy is the educating of adults, and this term is used to delineate the distinct practices which should be applied in adult education. This concept distinguishes the learning needs of mature people from those of adolescents. This theory necessitates that mature learners be engaged in the preparation and planning of their learning needs, and to assimilate how to fulfill those needs. This paper will
define andragogy, explain its postulates, and the impacts that this concept has had on current distance education practices.
What is Andragogy?
Andragogy is a learning theory that has been in existence since the 19th century. Andragogy was initially founded by Eduard Linderman in 1926, and he was the first to coin the meaning of adult education (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011). In 1833, this concept was first put into print format by Alexander Kapp, who was a teacher in Germany
(Knowles et al., 2011). Later on, Matthew Knowles revived this terminology in the 1970s and 1980s. Knowles described andragogy as the educating and teaching of adults (Knowles et al., 2011). Pedagogy is the educating of juveniles, and it is frequently used as a synonym for education. Since, education was focused on teaching children, a term needed to be geared towards how adults learn. Andragogy is aimed at how adults learn and not what they are
being taught (Knowles et al., 2011). It is an alternative model for teaching and learning, and this word can be substituted for the term pedagogy (Knowles et al., 2011). Andragogical approaches are more learner-centered as compared to pedagogical techniques, which are teacher-centered (Knowles et al., 2011).
According to Knowles, Holton, & Swanson (2011), by working with adults, Knowles ascertained that educators needed to be concerned about the true interests of mature students, rather than concentrating on what they thought were the learners’ interests. Knowles believed that the most optimal learning experiences were those that were collaborative and directed interactions amid the student and instructor, with an abundance of accessible resources.
Throughout the students’ learning experiences, the distance educator helps to direct the adults, so they can cultivate their own learning capabilities (Knowles et al., 2011).
Postulates of Andragogy
Knowles described six postulates that differentiate mature learners from juvenile learners
and they are:
Six postulates.The first postulate explains how adults are autonomous and self-directed learners. Older people have a self-concept about themselves (Knowles et al., 2011). This idea or mental image of themselves is being self-determined and self-regulated. As people grow, they become more independent and they start to take accountability for their own actions (Knowles et al., 2011). Adults select what they want to understand and how they want to learn it (Knowles et al., 2011). Mature students need to be intensely engaged in the determinations that will impact them such as being involved in the preparation and planning of their learning needs. This will aid them in setting up their own educational objectives (Knowles et al., 2011).
The second postulate is adult learners have an abundance of knowledge built up from their learning experiences. Mature people have a wealth of knowledge that comes from their many years of life experience. This abundance of knowledge can be used to create new learning experiences. The experiences that mature students have are seen as a learning resource, and it serves as a foundation for learning. Due to this learning resource, adults can contribute a wealth of knowledge to course discussions, and they are viewed as valuable assets when it comes to learning from and with others (Knowles et al., 2011).
The third postulate explains how adults are prepared and equipped to learn. When an older person is ready to learn, it all hinges upon what he or she needs to comprehend, in order to handle certain situations in life. Adults need to immediately see how learning is applied to something, in order for learning to be effective. Thereupon, learning is arranged around the applications in life. If a mature person is learning something, he or she needs to gain an
immediate understanding of what is being learned (Knowles et al., 2011). Examples of circumstances in life that pushes mature people to learn include understanding how to take care of a young ailing child or comprehending how to cook healthier meals to lower cholesterol (Knowles et al., 2011).
The fourth postulate describes how adult learning is problem centered and their learning needs are focused on their social behaviors. Adults are oriented toward problem solving and not material content. Mature students search for educational opportunities that will give them the ability to problem solve. Thus, a teacher’s instructional approaches should include problem solving and stimulating dialogue. In addition, learning should be based on experiences in life,
since adults learning is focused on their performance (Knowles et al., 2011).
The fifth postulate describes how older people are internally stimulated by motivational factors. Adults are motivated more internally than externally. Older students will search for educational opportunities because of intrinsic factors such as self-actualization and self-esteem. These internal motivators’ make adults want to learn, problem solve, and find new ways to learn (Knowles et al., 2011).
Finally, the sixth postulate is mature people need to understand why they need to learn something. Mature students need to comprehend why they are learning something, in order for them to get something out of it. Older people invest a lot of time and energy into to searching for the advantages and disadvantages of them not learning something, before they decide to put forth an effort to learn it. Having an understanding of this new information will help them to
gain a sense of what they have learned (Knowles et al., 2011).
Attributes of Mature Learners
In distance education, it is important to consider the preferences and attributes of mature learners, in order to effectively design distance learning courses for adults. Mature learners diligently search for information in order to expound upon their knowledge and capabilities.Thus, learning is not seen as a waste of time or an inconvenience. Mature learners are more distinct than traditional college students. Older people are bogged down with the daily
routines of life such as working full-time, and taking care of family obligations and personal commitments. This leaves very little time open to engage in learning or going back to school. Adults face many challenges in life. These obstacles include loss of employment, divorce or separation from a spouse, and career advancement. These situations can conflict with the learning process (Cabag, 1999).
Andragogy has given adults a new outlook on education. Mature students go to school with a distinct point of view as compared to adolescents. Distance learning allows mature students to return to school, improve their quality of life, and eliminate many of the challenges they are confronted with (Cabag, 1999). Adults have the capability to learn using online resources, which has become instrumental in changing the nature of different learning
approaches (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Often, mature learners react favorably to intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors. Frequently, extrinsic factors appear to be the main reasons why adults submerge themselves in the world of education. Furthermore, educational advancement can lead to a better position on the job. Knowing this in itself is stimulating and encouraging to mature people. This can give adults some kind of affirmation because the energy and time devoted to obtaining an education
will lead to a physical accomplishment (Knowles et al., 2011).
Intrinsic factors are the most stimulating. Internal motivators are the driving force behind why adults want to learn and obtain an education by taking distance learning courses. Acquiring an education serves a way for adults to achieve satisfaction, whether it is raising one's self-esteem or having contentment on the job. Expanding on adults' competence levels can provide them with a sense of knowledge, which is priceless. It is paramount for mature learners to value what they are learning, and to understand the impacts from not learning(Knowles et al., 2011).
To the contrary, this is why older people are stimulated and self-determined. Mature students are categorized as desirous and ambitious when it comes to selecting what they want to learn, and what they want to get out of it. Hence, adults learn to augment their knowledge, in order to obtain certain proficiencies. No matter what it is, older people depend on new experiences to advance and push themselves towards an objective or goal (Cabag, 1999).
Impacts of Andragogy on Current Distance Education Practices
Adult learners are one of the fastest growing student populations. As compared to conventional education, distance learning is aimed more towards the educating of adults not children. Distance learning is a widely used process by which teaching and learning is disseminated to mature people. Numerous distance learning programs are being created yearly. Distance education institutions are making application of andragogy in their educational
programs (Reddy & Devi, 2006). With the development of online education and digitized technologies, this has augmented distance education practitioners’ curiosity about andragogy. Distance educators are interested in andragogy because this concept is important in the design of distance education courses. Instructors have learned how to employ the andragogical principles to their pedagogical practices to help adults make more determinations about their learning. This will motivate them to become more autonomous and self-directed learners, and make adults who learn at a distance become more efficient (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Andragogy is an influential theory in distance education. Teaching and learning is not something that just happens in the conventional classroom, it can take place in digitized and virtual spaces. This theory has allowed distance educators to direct their instructional content more toward peoples' individual needs (Reddy & Devi, 2006). Furthermore, it has helped distance education practitioners to become more aware of the way they approach different
learning styles among mature learners. Instructors have learned to use course presentations that are more pictorial, illustrative, tactile, auditory, and sensual. Furthermore, distance educators have learned to apply empirical and practical approaches in classroom activities, in order to help learners to make application of their life experiences (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Students learning styles influence how they address educational activities. These learning styles pertain to the distinct ways in which people think and feel as they problem solve, generate solutions, and communicate. Hence, lifelong learning can be improved when adults understand their learning styles. Teachers should develop learning environments that are unique to each mature learner. Adults are human beings and they all have distinct needs. Learning environments are dynamic and they change all of the time (Reddy & Devi, 2006). Distance education practitioners can offer more options to their students, such as providing them with a cooperative educational environment, which promotes appreciation and admiration for others and stimulating dialogue. Hence, distance educators should motivate and foster this kind of activity among their students on a daily basis (Knowles et al., 2011).
Distance education practitioners who design online programs for distance learning courses, must learn to comprehend this andragogical learning theory and its relationship with distance learning; in order to effectively design distance education programs for older people. The majority of distance learning students are adults. If adult educators comprehend the nature of this theory and its concepts, the more they can comprehend the nature of distance education (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Adults often go through different transitions in life or in their professional careers. Distance education practitioners must recognize that adult students are undergoing these changes in life, while they are learning. Teachers must support their students during these transformations, and this will allow them to engage in reflective learning, which plays an important role in the educational process (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
In order for andragogy to be effective in distance learning programs, distance educators must facilitate a learning environment that is conducive to adult education; design curriculum and instructional material to incorporate educational preparation and planning; and organize the course in a way that helps the students' determine their own learning needs and orientation of learning (Reddy & Devi, 2006). These things will help adults diagnose their own educational needs, gain an appreciation for what they are learning, and take charge of accomplishing their
own didactic activities (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Conclusion
Andragogy is a theory that has a lot to offer in distance learning and for distance educators. This concept and its correlating postulates help to distinguish adult learning from the way children learn. Andragogy stresses how adults are self-directed and independent learners. Adult learners are very diverse, learn differently, and have distinct learning styles. Mature people have acquired many years of knowledge and life experience, as compared to children. The accumulation of knowledge and life experience is viewed as a learning resource. This learning resource can be used to build new knowledge and learning experiences, which can be applied in distance learning courses. Andragogy has influenced how current distance education practices embrace adult education. Distance education practitioners need to comprehend the nature and context of distant learning and the culture and society that embody mature learners.
Further, distance educators need to review the andragogical principles and apply them in their pedagogical practices, in order to develop effective distance education programs and courses for adult learners.
References
Cabag, R. C. (1999). Nonformal education: A handbook for teachers education, students, administrators, and extension program implementors. Quezon City, Phillipines: Kartha Publishing Company, Inc.
Knowles, M., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Incorporated.
Reddy, P. A., & Devi, D. U. (2006). Current trends in adult education. Darya Ganj, New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Inc.
An artifact is anything that I have developed with in and outside of the Masters in Distance Education Program that demonstrates my professional expertise. Futhermore, this section of my e-portfolio demonstrates my active participation in the Master's program and it demonstrates the skills and proficiencies that I have developed so far.
Sample Assignment 1
Kelley Wells
OMDE 601 Section 9040
September 30, 2012
The Definition of Distance Education
Introduction
The term distance education can be referred to as distributed learning, correspondence study, independent study, online learning, and adult education. All of these terms can be used interchangeably to describe what distance education is. Even though, many traditional terms and definitions exist for distance education, a good piece of terminology is needed in order to gain an adequate understanding of this concept (Holmberg, 2005). This paper hopes to identify and discuss a single definition that accurately describes what distance education is and provide an explanation for the selection of this rationale.
How is Distance Education Defined?
According to Schlosser & Simonson (2010), distance education is defined as an “institution-based formal education where the learning group is separated, and where interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners, resources, and instructors.” This definition was chosen because it accurately delineates what distance education is and its defining attributes. This delineation has four components that make up the meaning of distance education. The subsequent paragraphs will break down these four components and expound upon this rationale.
The Defining Characteristics of Distance Education
There are four constituent elements that define distance education. The first element of this terminology deals with distance education being established by an institution. Distance learning is an industrial mode of education because corporations, businesses, companies, colleges, and universities offer nontraditional courses to people at a distance. This form of education has become industrialized, and it has helped people all over the world gain greater access to a quality education (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). For example, according to Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010), British Open Universities in the 1970s started to adjust and coordinate their educational and institutional structures to embrace the “massification” of teaching and learning. Furthermore, this industrial mode of education was aimed at concentrating on the “organizational economies of scale.” The objective of this pedagogy was to help those impoverished individuals gain greater access to a good education (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
Next, the second constituent involves having a division amid the student and instructor. The student and instructor are not physically in the same location at the same time (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). For example, Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010) pointed out that the division between the pupil and teacher occurred because they were geographically separated or the student had personal obligations that stopped him or her from attending class. These obligations include things such as work, family, and transportation issues. From an educational perspective, distance education is supposed to close the gap amid the pupil and teacher by providing a means of communication (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
The third component is concerned with using a two-way system of communications to transmit or disseminate information from one person to another at a distance. This media can be technical or nontechnical in nature. This can include radio, telephone, television, computer, or printed or written material (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). For instance, Garrison & Cleveland-Innes noted that, in the 1970s and 1980s, technology such as radio and television was supposed to be an inexpensive way to disseminate and transmit educational material. Rather, it proved to be too costly, and educational institutions continued to use written material as a means for delivering their course instruction (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
Finally, the forth component is the notion of linking the students, teacher, and instructional material together. This means the teacher communicates with the students and the educational materials are readily prepared, which gives students the ability to access it at their convenience. In turn, the student will have the capability to acquire knowledge from the teacher’s instruction. These educational resources are constructed in such a way that it facilitates learning that can be grasped, apprehended, and perceived by the student (Schlosser & Simonson, 2010). Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010) asserted that technology such as the Internet has helped to connect the educators with the learners. The internet has helped educators to facilitate educational material more easily, made access to education more convenient, learners have greater access to resources, and it has increased the students’ learning experience (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).
Conclusion
The term distance education has various meanings, and it comes in many different forms. There is no one way to describe the meaning of this word. Education no longer has to take place in a classroom setting; it can be done from any place and at any time. The four elements of distance education include being established by an institution; having a division amid the student and instructor; using a two-way system of communications to transmit or disseminate information from one person to another at a distance; and linking the students, teacher, and instructional material together. Many traditional definitions that give a description of distance education often lack one of these four qualities. If one of these determinants is omitted, then the definition of distance education may not accurately suit this term today. Therefore, a strong rationale is needed to dispute these traditional views of distance education.
References
Garrison, D. R. & Cleveland-Innes, M. F. (2010). An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era. New York, NY: Routledge.
Holmberg, B. (2005). Concepts and terminology - Student bodies. The evolution, principles, and practice of distance education, 11, 9-11. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Retrieved from http://www.box.com/shared/y97qyc7m0t.
Schlosser, L. A., & Simonson M. (2010). Distance education: Definition and glossary of terms (3rd ed.). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Sample Assignment 2
Kelley Wells
OMDE 601 Section 9040
October 28, 2012
Comparing and Contrasting Distance Education Institutions in Developed and Underdeveloped Countries
Introduction
Several types of distance education organizations have come into existence. These establishments have surfaced in industrialized and underdeveloped countries. Each of these organizations can vary based on various dimensions. These different dimensions include mission and population served, inherent values, history and reason for existence, technology used, systems of operations, and model of teaching and learning. Many of these educational institutions are frequently used as models in various contexts in distance learning. This paper will thoughtfully compare and contrast the British Open University and the African Virtual University based upon these various dimensions, in an effort to address how the context of each institution influences their particular distance education practice.
History and Reason for Existence
The first dimension that will be discussed is the history and reason for existence. The African Virtual University opened up in 1997 as a World Bank project, which is headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya. This is not a conventional educational institution, rather it is a consortium. The consortium structure is an institutional cooperative that provides all its affiliates with a pool of information and educational resources to help create a new organizational arrangement. This type of institutional arrangement assures that all the affiliated organizations’ needs, goals, and interests are being met (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). The African Virtual University has partnered with educational organizations in Africa and other countries, to provide distance education courses to students in an electronic and open learning format. This organization wants to augment access to their curriculum by making various forms of teaching and learning available to everyone. Therefore, the African Virtual University capitalized on higher education by focusing on the international market (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
The British Open University was constituted in 1969, and it is the largest educational organization in the United Kingdom. The purpose of this institution was to give the people in the United Kingdom a second chance at obtaining a secondary education by taking distance learning courses. This establishment has an open arrangement, which means that there are no affiliated schools or colleges under its control. In addition, the British Open University does not require their students to have any formal academic qualifications, in order for them to register with this distance education organization (Richardson, 2010).
Mission and Population Served
The second element that will be compared is mission and population served. The mission of the African Virtual University is to collaborate with educational organizations in Africa and other countries for the advancement of knowledge and quality instruction, to perpetually change the way teaching and learning is disseminated in the future, and to make education inexpensive, economical, fair, reasonable, and pliable by making use of communication technologies and systematic educational structures (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). Moreover, the African Virtual University’s vision is to be the head African university that supports a distance learning environment that is inclusive and unclosed in a consortium partnership (Juma, 2003).
The British Open University’s mission is to have an open door policy when it comes to various techniques, concepts, people, and locations. Hence, this organization is opening their doors to everyone despite their educational situation or geographical location. Furthermore, the Open University of the United Kingdom’s vision is not only to offer people a second chance at obtaining a quality education, but to foster social equitableness by offering a high quality education to all those who want to succeed and reach their full potential (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
Nevertheless, these institutions serve different populations in their countries. The African Virtual University benefits the people in Sub-Saharan Africa who are educationally and economically disadvantaged. This organization wants to use new information technologies to help augment the access to education throughout this region (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). The British Open University serves students in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world. The students are composed of those who are disabled, who work full-time and have families, study part-time, and people who are 21 years of age and older. It is considered an educational organization for the working or middle class. Their open admission policy welcomes people from all ages, ethnicities, races, and backgrounds (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
Inherent Values
The third constituent that will be evaluated is inherent values. The African Virtual University’s values are to promote accessibility to tertiary education in Africa through a joint effort with other partner organizations; and to foster candidness, dependableness, and courteousness with their faculty (Juma, 2003). The British Open University’s inherent values are to be open to all, creative with their teaching and methods of learning, encourage lifelong learning, and to be receptive to the needs of the students, societies, and organizations (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
System of Operations
The fourth dimension that will be analyzed is system of operations. The African Virtual University is composed of several organizational levels. The first level is the faculty and departments, which are located in the Australian organizations; the second level is positioned at the universities in Africa; the third level is at the African Virtual University’s learning centers; and the fourth level is at native universities in Africa with the faculty and educators. Their system of operations uses a network of universities and institutions from different countries to disseminate educational materials to distant learners in Africa (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
The Open University of the United Kingdom has an intricate infrastructure. It is split up into thirteen centers. Each of these centers has a local administrator, who is in charge of setting up the regional study centers. These study centers offer the learners a place where they can interact with one another. In addition, these places allow the students to talk with their counselors and tutors face-to-face. Each center is managed by a counselor who counsels and direct group lectures after instructional broadcasts (Brennan, Holloway, & Shah, n.d.). The facilities at the University’s central base are all controlled from one administrative center. It is located in Milton Keynes, London. This institution also has centers located in Ireland and Europe (Brennan, Holloway, & Shah, n.d.).
Model of Teaching and Learning
The fifth component that will be examined is the institutions’ models of teaching and learning. The African Virtual University uses a mixed-mode approach, which is a combination of blended and online learning. This technique uses emails and chat sessions in an e-learning environment, which takes place in real time. This aids in providing their distant learners with a new approach to learning (Juma, 2003). Furthermore, they use a learning center approach. The students must sign up at one of the institution’s learning centers, where they will attend synchronous meetings. This ensures that the learners are exposed to the organization’s technologies and they obtain an effectual learning experience (Juma, 2003).
The Open University of the United Kingdom’s models of teaching and learning are the transmission and open learning models. The transmission model deals with finding ways to effectually exchange information or knowledge. Since we are in a knowledge-based society, more weight needs to be given to meeting the needs and demands of widening the access to obtaining a higher education. The transmission model uses technologies such as the computer and internet, to disseminate information to their students in order to make a more progressive teaching model (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). The open learning model gives the students the ability to access a distance learning environment through computerized technologies such as the internet. This offers the educators and distant learners’ flexibility and convenience in an inclusive environment. This model employs different technologies to empower learning and the building of intellectual capital (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
Technology Used
The final dimension to be considered is the types of technology used. The African Virtual University uses a form of technical media called Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). An example of this form of media is asynchronous videoconferencing. Further, they use open source software and courseware to help lessen the duplication of instructional material (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.). This organization uses other forms of technology as well. The university relies on satellites to transmit information from one location to another. These technologies allow the educators and lecturers from partner institutions the ability to teach their course material to the students at the African Virtual University (Juma, 2003).
However, the British Open University uses computer-based technologies to disseminate their instruction material to people in the United Kingdom. Examples of these technologies include websites, online conferencing, digital resources, and CD-ROMs. They also rely on written, audio, and television broadcasts as well (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
How Distance Learning is Influenced by the Institutional Context of These Organizations
The institutional contexts of the African Virtual University and British Open University have influenced their distance education practices in Africa and Great Britain. The Open University of the United Kingdom is located in a developed country, and it has brought about a new form of teaching and learning as compared to conventional schools and universities. This institution has made a substantial contribution to the development of distance education in the United Kingdom. It emancipated distance education by incorporating technology into their educational regime. The British Open University helped to industrialize distance learning by mass producing and distributing education in Great Britain. This allowed teaching and learning to be disseminated to a large group of people in this region. Therefore, this made obtaining a quality education inexpensive, convenient, and affordable. In essence, this permitted everyone to have equal and quality access to obtaining a secondary education (Dzvismbo & Kariuki, n.d.).
To the contrary, the African Virtual University is located in a developing country. This institution has made huge strides in distance education. In Sub-Saharan Africa, this region is the most undeveloped place in the world when it comes to education. This region faces many obstacles, which ranges from inadequate access to having inferiority in education. Sub-Saharan Africa is not equipped with an adequate educational infrastructure, deficient in trained instructors, and scarce in educational resources (Cyranek, 2000). The African Virtual University has augmented the access to obtaining a tertiary education, and it has aided in advancing higher education initiatives in Africa (Juma, 2003). This was accomplished by facilitating knowledge across Africa, and by closing the digital divide between Africa and the rest of the world through the use of technology. By making use of the partnership institutions, blended and open learning programs, and embracing student-centered learning; this has helped this institution to facilitate the globalization and dissemination of information in a knowledge-based society (Juma, 2003).
Conclusion
The Open University of the United Kingdom and the African Virtual University are two distinct types of educational institutions that exist in two different countries. They vary based on mission and population served, inherent values, history and reason for existence, technology used, systems of operations, and model of teaching and learning. These organizations learned how to reduce costs, augment quality, and widen the access to obtaining a higher education. Moreover, these institutions focused on using the latest technology and pedagogical principles to drive the industrialization and globalization of distance education. Technology helped to mass produce and disseminate information to people in Africa and the United Kingdom. The distance education practices of these specialized institutions are helping their countries to meet the huge demand for higher education.
References
Brennan, J., Holloway, J., & Shah, T. (n.d.). Open university the United Kingdom (Quality Assessment). Retrieved from Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) website: http://www.oecd.org/education/
higher educationandadultlearning/1871706.pdf.
Cyranek, G. (2000). Virtual Learning in the African Context. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=6387&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL
_SECTION=201.html.
Dzvimbo, K. P., & Kariuki, C.W. (n.d.). Quality assurance in the African Virtual University: A case study. Commonwealth of Learning (COL). Retrieved from http://www.col.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/PS-QA_chapter4.pdf.
Juma, M. (2003). The Virtual University: Models and messages (Kenyatta University- African Virtual University: An evolution of an exiting institution). Retrieved from United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization- International Institute for Educational Planning website: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001465/146558e.pdf.
Richardson, J.T. (2010). Course completion and attainment in disabled students taking courses with the Open University UK. Open Learning, 25(2), 81-94. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
02680511003787263.
Sample 3 Assignment
Kelley Wells
OMDE 601 Section 9040
November 30, 2012
Andragogy: How This Early Distance Education Theory Influenced Current Distance
Education Practices
Introduction
Many earlier distance learning theories have made huge impacts on distance education, and the one that has been very influential in the way adults learn is andragogy. Andragogy is the educating of adults, and this term is used to delineate the distinct practices which should be applied in adult education. This concept distinguishes the learning needs of mature people from those of adolescents. This theory necessitates that mature learners be engaged in the preparation and planning of their learning needs, and to assimilate how to fulfill those needs. This paper will
define andragogy, explain its postulates, and the impacts that this concept has had on current distance education practices.
What is Andragogy?
Andragogy is a learning theory that has been in existence since the 19th century. Andragogy was initially founded by Eduard Linderman in 1926, and he was the first to coin the meaning of adult education (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011). In 1833, this concept was first put into print format by Alexander Kapp, who was a teacher in Germany
(Knowles et al., 2011). Later on, Matthew Knowles revived this terminology in the 1970s and 1980s. Knowles described andragogy as the educating and teaching of adults (Knowles et al., 2011). Pedagogy is the educating of juveniles, and it is frequently used as a synonym for education. Since, education was focused on teaching children, a term needed to be geared towards how adults learn. Andragogy is aimed at how adults learn and not what they are
being taught (Knowles et al., 2011). It is an alternative model for teaching and learning, and this word can be substituted for the term pedagogy (Knowles et al., 2011). Andragogical approaches are more learner-centered as compared to pedagogical techniques, which are teacher-centered (Knowles et al., 2011).
According to Knowles, Holton, & Swanson (2011), by working with adults, Knowles ascertained that educators needed to be concerned about the true interests of mature students, rather than concentrating on what they thought were the learners’ interests. Knowles believed that the most optimal learning experiences were those that were collaborative and directed interactions amid the student and instructor, with an abundance of accessible resources.
Throughout the students’ learning experiences, the distance educator helps to direct the adults, so they can cultivate their own learning capabilities (Knowles et al., 2011).
Postulates of Andragogy
Knowles described six postulates that differentiate mature learners from juvenile learners
and they are:
- Mature learners are autonomous and self-directed;
- Adults have an abundance of knowledge built up from their learning experiences;
- Mature learners are prepared and equipped to learn;
- Adult learning is problem centered and their learning needs are focused on their social behaviors;
- Mature people are internally stimulated by motivational factors; and
- Adults need to understand why they are learning something (Knowles et al., 2011).
Six postulates.The first postulate explains how adults are autonomous and self-directed learners. Older people have a self-concept about themselves (Knowles et al., 2011). This idea or mental image of themselves is being self-determined and self-regulated. As people grow, they become more independent and they start to take accountability for their own actions (Knowles et al., 2011). Adults select what they want to understand and how they want to learn it (Knowles et al., 2011). Mature students need to be intensely engaged in the determinations that will impact them such as being involved in the preparation and planning of their learning needs. This will aid them in setting up their own educational objectives (Knowles et al., 2011).
The second postulate is adult learners have an abundance of knowledge built up from their learning experiences. Mature people have a wealth of knowledge that comes from their many years of life experience. This abundance of knowledge can be used to create new learning experiences. The experiences that mature students have are seen as a learning resource, and it serves as a foundation for learning. Due to this learning resource, adults can contribute a wealth of knowledge to course discussions, and they are viewed as valuable assets when it comes to learning from and with others (Knowles et al., 2011).
The third postulate explains how adults are prepared and equipped to learn. When an older person is ready to learn, it all hinges upon what he or she needs to comprehend, in order to handle certain situations in life. Adults need to immediately see how learning is applied to something, in order for learning to be effective. Thereupon, learning is arranged around the applications in life. If a mature person is learning something, he or she needs to gain an
immediate understanding of what is being learned (Knowles et al., 2011). Examples of circumstances in life that pushes mature people to learn include understanding how to take care of a young ailing child or comprehending how to cook healthier meals to lower cholesterol (Knowles et al., 2011).
The fourth postulate describes how adult learning is problem centered and their learning needs are focused on their social behaviors. Adults are oriented toward problem solving and not material content. Mature students search for educational opportunities that will give them the ability to problem solve. Thus, a teacher’s instructional approaches should include problem solving and stimulating dialogue. In addition, learning should be based on experiences in life,
since adults learning is focused on their performance (Knowles et al., 2011).
The fifth postulate describes how older people are internally stimulated by motivational factors. Adults are motivated more internally than externally. Older students will search for educational opportunities because of intrinsic factors such as self-actualization and self-esteem. These internal motivators’ make adults want to learn, problem solve, and find new ways to learn (Knowles et al., 2011).
Finally, the sixth postulate is mature people need to understand why they need to learn something. Mature students need to comprehend why they are learning something, in order for them to get something out of it. Older people invest a lot of time and energy into to searching for the advantages and disadvantages of them not learning something, before they decide to put forth an effort to learn it. Having an understanding of this new information will help them to
gain a sense of what they have learned (Knowles et al., 2011).
Attributes of Mature Learners
In distance education, it is important to consider the preferences and attributes of mature learners, in order to effectively design distance learning courses for adults. Mature learners diligently search for information in order to expound upon their knowledge and capabilities.Thus, learning is not seen as a waste of time or an inconvenience. Mature learners are more distinct than traditional college students. Older people are bogged down with the daily
routines of life such as working full-time, and taking care of family obligations and personal commitments. This leaves very little time open to engage in learning or going back to school. Adults face many challenges in life. These obstacles include loss of employment, divorce or separation from a spouse, and career advancement. These situations can conflict with the learning process (Cabag, 1999).
Andragogy has given adults a new outlook on education. Mature students go to school with a distinct point of view as compared to adolescents. Distance learning allows mature students to return to school, improve their quality of life, and eliminate many of the challenges they are confronted with (Cabag, 1999). Adults have the capability to learn using online resources, which has become instrumental in changing the nature of different learning
approaches (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Often, mature learners react favorably to intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors. Frequently, extrinsic factors appear to be the main reasons why adults submerge themselves in the world of education. Furthermore, educational advancement can lead to a better position on the job. Knowing this in itself is stimulating and encouraging to mature people. This can give adults some kind of affirmation because the energy and time devoted to obtaining an education
will lead to a physical accomplishment (Knowles et al., 2011).
Intrinsic factors are the most stimulating. Internal motivators are the driving force behind why adults want to learn and obtain an education by taking distance learning courses. Acquiring an education serves a way for adults to achieve satisfaction, whether it is raising one's self-esteem or having contentment on the job. Expanding on adults' competence levels can provide them with a sense of knowledge, which is priceless. It is paramount for mature learners to value what they are learning, and to understand the impacts from not learning(Knowles et al., 2011).
To the contrary, this is why older people are stimulated and self-determined. Mature students are categorized as desirous and ambitious when it comes to selecting what they want to learn, and what they want to get out of it. Hence, adults learn to augment their knowledge, in order to obtain certain proficiencies. No matter what it is, older people depend on new experiences to advance and push themselves towards an objective or goal (Cabag, 1999).
Impacts of Andragogy on Current Distance Education Practices
Adult learners are one of the fastest growing student populations. As compared to conventional education, distance learning is aimed more towards the educating of adults not children. Distance learning is a widely used process by which teaching and learning is disseminated to mature people. Numerous distance learning programs are being created yearly. Distance education institutions are making application of andragogy in their educational
programs (Reddy & Devi, 2006). With the development of online education and digitized technologies, this has augmented distance education practitioners’ curiosity about andragogy. Distance educators are interested in andragogy because this concept is important in the design of distance education courses. Instructors have learned how to employ the andragogical principles to their pedagogical practices to help adults make more determinations about their learning. This will motivate them to become more autonomous and self-directed learners, and make adults who learn at a distance become more efficient (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Andragogy is an influential theory in distance education. Teaching and learning is not something that just happens in the conventional classroom, it can take place in digitized and virtual spaces. This theory has allowed distance educators to direct their instructional content more toward peoples' individual needs (Reddy & Devi, 2006). Furthermore, it has helped distance education practitioners to become more aware of the way they approach different
learning styles among mature learners. Instructors have learned to use course presentations that are more pictorial, illustrative, tactile, auditory, and sensual. Furthermore, distance educators have learned to apply empirical and practical approaches in classroom activities, in order to help learners to make application of their life experiences (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Students learning styles influence how they address educational activities. These learning styles pertain to the distinct ways in which people think and feel as they problem solve, generate solutions, and communicate. Hence, lifelong learning can be improved when adults understand their learning styles. Teachers should develop learning environments that are unique to each mature learner. Adults are human beings and they all have distinct needs. Learning environments are dynamic and they change all of the time (Reddy & Devi, 2006). Distance education practitioners can offer more options to their students, such as providing them with a cooperative educational environment, which promotes appreciation and admiration for others and stimulating dialogue. Hence, distance educators should motivate and foster this kind of activity among their students on a daily basis (Knowles et al., 2011).
Distance education practitioners who design online programs for distance learning courses, must learn to comprehend this andragogical learning theory and its relationship with distance learning; in order to effectively design distance education programs for older people. The majority of distance learning students are adults. If adult educators comprehend the nature of this theory and its concepts, the more they can comprehend the nature of distance education (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Adults often go through different transitions in life or in their professional careers. Distance education practitioners must recognize that adult students are undergoing these changes in life, while they are learning. Teachers must support their students during these transformations, and this will allow them to engage in reflective learning, which plays an important role in the educational process (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
In order for andragogy to be effective in distance learning programs, distance educators must facilitate a learning environment that is conducive to adult education; design curriculum and instructional material to incorporate educational preparation and planning; and organize the course in a way that helps the students' determine their own learning needs and orientation of learning (Reddy & Devi, 2006). These things will help adults diagnose their own educational needs, gain an appreciation for what they are learning, and take charge of accomplishing their
own didactic activities (Reddy & Devi, 2006).
Conclusion
Andragogy is a theory that has a lot to offer in distance learning and for distance educators. This concept and its correlating postulates help to distinguish adult learning from the way children learn. Andragogy stresses how adults are self-directed and independent learners. Adult learners are very diverse, learn differently, and have distinct learning styles. Mature people have acquired many years of knowledge and life experience, as compared to children. The accumulation of knowledge and life experience is viewed as a learning resource. This learning resource can be used to build new knowledge and learning experiences, which can be applied in distance learning courses. Andragogy has influenced how current distance education practices embrace adult education. Distance education practitioners need to comprehend the nature and context of distant learning and the culture and society that embody mature learners.
Further, distance educators need to review the andragogical principles and apply them in their pedagogical practices, in order to develop effective distance education programs and courses for adult learners.
References
Cabag, R. C. (1999). Nonformal education: A handbook for teachers education, students, administrators, and extension program implementors. Quezon City, Phillipines: Kartha Publishing Company, Inc.
Knowles, M., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Incorporated.
Reddy, P. A., & Devi, D. U. (2006). Current trends in adult education. Darya Ganj, New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, Inc.
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